Psychological symptoms and risk factors associated with long COVID: a study on the Indian cohort

The long-term neurological effects of COVID-19, such as lack of concentration, loss of memory, and anxiety, present major concerns for COVID-19 Recovered Individuals (CRIs). Our study aims at understanding these long-term COVID-19 symptoms (LCS) and associated risk factors among the Indian cohort. In this two-part study, we analyze self-reported symptom information such as fatigue in different life spheres, symptoms experienced in past months, hospitalization status, and sex of Healthy Controls (HCs) and CRIs. In Study 1, we compare the symptoms of 62 CRIs (16 Females; 30.60 ± 10.34 years) with 36 hCs (11 Females; 27.53 ± 7.3 years). Chi-square analysis revealed that both the groups differ significantly from each other in terms of self-reported major symptoms experienced (MSEs) (p < 0.001) and major life spheres being affected by fatigue (MLSA) (p = 0.008). Further, in Study 2, we explore predictive models for these symptoms as reported by 57 of the CRIs (15 Females; 31.28 ± 10.50 years) using logistic regression and receiver operator characteristic (ROCs) information, with unrefreshing sleep, hospitalization status, and sex as the predictors for LCS. Statistical analysis reveals unrefreshing sleep as an important predictor of attention issues (odds ratio (OR) = 6.25, p = 0.003), anxiety issues (OR = 7.75, p = 0.018), and fatigue (OR = 5.83, p = 0.018) but was found non-significant for memory issues (OR = 1.86, p = 0.513) among CRIs. Hospitalization status and sex were not found to significantly affect these reported symptoms.